Medicare Assignment Essay

Medicare Assignment What is Medicare? What governmental agency administers it? Medicare is a national social insurance program; it is the federal health insurance program for people who are 65 or older, certain younger people with disabilities, and people with End-Stage Renal Disease known as a permanent kidney failure requiring dialysis or transplant. Medicare helps cover different specific medical cost. As a social insurance program, Medicare spreads the financial risk associated with illness across society to protect everyone, and thus somewhat different social role from for-profit private insurers, which manage their risk portfolio by adjusting their pricing according to, perceived risk. Medicare is managed by the Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA), a division of the U.S Department of Health and Human Services which also administers Medicaid. Who is eligible for Medicare? Who is not eligible for Medicare? People who are at age 65 or older qualifies if he or she is A U.S citizen or a permanent legal resident  He/She or their spouse has worked long enough to be eligible for Social Security or railroad retirement benefits – usually having earned 40 credits from about 10 years of work He/She or their spouse is a government employee or retiree who has not paid into Social Security but has paid Medicare payroll taxes while working. Note that He/She can qualify for Medicare on their spouse’s work record if he or she is at least age 62 and he/she is at least age 65. They may also qualify on the work record of a divorced or deceased spouse. Following the Supreme Court’s ruling on the Defense of Marriage Act in June 2013 people in same sex marriage may qualify on their spouse’s work record if they live in the state where they were wed or in another state that recognizes same-sex marriage, or if they are civilian or military employees of the federal government. People who are under age 65 qualifies if he or she is Have been entitled to Social Security disability benefits for at least 24  months ( which need not be consecutive) Receive a disability pension from the Railroad Retirement Board and meet certain conditions Have Lou Gehrig’s disease ( amyotrophic lateral sclerosis), which qualifies them immediately Have permanent kidney failure requiring regular dialysis or a kidney transplant , and either he/ she or their spouse has paid Social Security taxes for a certain length of time depending on their age. People do not qualify for Medicare if they do not meet the above requirements. How do you apply for Medicare? Check whether he/she qualifies to receive, by verifying whether or not he/she qualify to receive government assistance through its Medicare program. They must be low-income, income is measured against the Federal Poverty Level, for FPL, which changes annually but is currently set $23,550, are pregnant, are elderly (65+) and younger (under 21), are blind or disabled, have no health insurance, guardians of a minor but have restricted sources of income, are SSI eligible. Go to your state of residence’s Medicare website to get more detailed information on state eligibility requirements. Individual state links are posted at the Center for Medicare & Medicaid Services’ website. This site also provides a detailed listing of what services are and are not covered under Medicaid. State eligibility sometimes differ. Federal law requires states to cover certain mandatory eligibility groups, but allows them to provide coverage to other population groups. Some states do, other states don’t. This means that state eligibility laws will differ from state to state. Check with your state and learn the eligibility requirements. Many states are expanding coverage, especially for children. Read over the application form in its entirety before inputting your information. Make sure answers are accurate as Medicare fraud is a serious offense that carries equally serious penalties. Schedule a time to meet with a Medicare officer or a social or human services representative if he/she has any questions or concerns about eligibility. Organize all the documents necessary to apply for Medicare. The state will need to verify information on the application by cross-referencing it with certain documents you may be in possession of. In order to do this, you should make  duplicate copies of: 1) birth certificate, social security number or guardianship papers 2) Driver’s license and vehicle registration 3) Proof of residency in the state in which you are applying for 4) Any pay stubs or other proof of income 5) Names of your financial institutions and any bank accounts numbers 6) Real estate deeds 7) Unpaid doctor or health care bills 8) Medicare Benefit Card Consult with an elder lawyer or one who specializes in family law before submitting your Medicare application. This is especially important if the person who is applying for Medicare will be entering a skilled nursing facility. Inquire as to the average turnaround time for reviewing an application. It generally takes 45 days for the state to process an application that does not involve a disability. It can take up to 90 days to process an application associated with a disability. Be sure to follow up on the status of your application if you don’t receive a response within a reasonable time after that. Know that you can combine Medicaid and Medicare coverage if you meet certain eligibility requirements. Renew your eligibility once a year What types of coverage does Medicare provide? What does it not provide? Medicare covers services (like lab tests, surgeries, and doctor visits) and supplies (like wheelchairs and walkers) considered medically necessary to treat a disease or condition. If you’re in a Medicare Advantage Plan or other Medicare plan, you may have different rules, but your plan must give you at least the same coverage as Original Medicare. Some services may only be covered in certain settings or for patients with certain conditions. Part A: Hospital care, Skilled nursing facility care, Nursing home care, Hospice, Home health services Part B covers 2 types of services Medically necessary services: Services or supplies that are needed to diagnose or treat your medical condition and that meet accepted standards of medical practice. Preventive services: Health care to prevent illness (like the flu) or detect it at an early stage, when treatment is most likely to work best. You pay nothing for most preventive services if you get the services from a health care provider who accepts assignment. Part B covers things like: 1) clinical research 2) ambulance services 3) durable medical  equipment (DME) 4) mental health 5) inpatient 6) outpatient 7) partial hospitalization 8) Getting a second opinion before surgery 9) Limited outpatient prescription drugs What are the â€Å"options† under Medicare (ie. can you pick your own doctor, can you pick your own drug plan? Etc.) In most cases, people can choose their own doctors, other health care provider, hospital, or other facility that’s enrolled in Medicare and is accepting new Medicare patients. However for drug, most prescriptions aren’t covered in Original Medicare but people are given the choice to join a Medicare Prescription Drug Plan. Each Medicare Prescription Drug Plan has its own list of covered drugs, many medicare drug plans place drugs into different tiers on their formularies. Drugs in each tier have a different cost. A drug in a lower tier will generally cost less than a drug in a higher tier. Do you have to pay for Medicare benefits? Yes, generally people have to pay for Medicare benefits. Part A usually cost $441 each month if a person is not eligible for premium free. For part B, a person pays a premium each month for Medicare Part B (Medical Insurance). Most people will pay the standard premium amount. However, their modified adjusted gross income as reported on your IRS tax return from 2 years ago is above a certain amount, they may an Income Related Monthly Adjustment Amount (IRMAA). IRMAA is an extra charge added to premium. Part B for $ 147 and Premium B for; If your yearly income in 2011 was You pay (in 2013) File individual tax return File joint tax return $85,000 or less $170,000 or less $104.90 above $85,000 up to $107,000 above $170,000 up to $214,000 $146.90 above $107,000 up to $160,000 above $214,000 up to $320,000 $209.80 above $160,000 up to $214,000 above $320,000 up to $428,000 $272.70 above $214,000 above $428,000 $335.70 Are there co-pays associated with Medicare? Yes. In traditional Medicare ( Part A and B) you pay 20% of the Medicare- approved amounts for most Part B services. In Part A, after meeting the deductible you pay nothing more for up to 60 days in the hospital in any one benefit period, but additional days may require daily copays. If you grandpa had severe dementia and needed 24 hour care, but your family wanted to keep him out of the nursing home, would his care be reimbursed through Medicare? Medicare has the choice to not reimburse the cost because it is not under the beneficiaries. Is Medicare working or is it just a broken socialized medicine program that needs to be redone? Why? I think that Medicare should be redone, it has too many processes to it, and it doesn’t make any sense if it’s for society who are poor and old, why do people still need to fork out so much of money per month to keep their Medicare benefits? Also, the paper work needed to apply for Medicare is tedious and not exactly friendly for somebody who is trying to apply for it. How easy was this information to find? How would a person with less education then you navigate this system? The Medicare website was rather easy to find, however the information was not the easiest thing to grasp especially when they have so many terms and conditions and different tiers to it. A person with less education will definitely have difficult time trying to navigate through the system and to get the right paper work done to apply.

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Background Sony Corporation is one of the best-known names in consumer electronics andranks second worldwide in electronics behind Matsushita Electric Corporation. Since itwas  established  shortly  after  World  War  II,  Sony  has  introduced  a  stream  of  revolutionary  products,  including  the  transistor  radio,  the  Trinitron  television,  theBetamax  VCR,  the  CD  player,  the  Walkman  portable  cassette  player,  and  thePlayStation game console. The company's electronics segment–which includes audioand video products, televisions, personal computers, monitors, computer peripherals,telecommunications devices, and electronic components (such as semiconductors).When Dr. Toshi T. Doi took charge of the project to develop a new computer in 1984, herecruited  11  top-flight  engineers  to  form  the  team. Doi  established  three  basicguidelines for the development: †¢ (1) the computer should be 32 bit; †¢ (2) it should be multipurpose; and †¢ (3) the project should be completed as soon as possible. The engineers, however, decided that they wanted to design a machine (an engineeringworkstation)  that  would  help  them  in  their  own  engineering  work  rather  than  amultipurpose machine. Doi approved their plan, but  he required that it be  finished in sixmonths.SAPADAPA ANALYSIS:I. Situational  Analysis Dr. Toshi T. Doi was the general manager of Sony's workstation division(WD) and was not keen on changing Sony's product development process,which was efficient and successful. The WD's workstation â€Å"NEWS† launchedin October 1986 at the Tokyo Data Show had generated over 1000 inquiries;they  recovered  investments  in  few  months  and  saw  a  double  in  salesannually. Its new product development (NPD) process for the 1550 series workstationhad three stages: basic architecture sp ecification †¢ product design †¢ first lot productionOne side effect of Sony’s preoccupation with the video business was that itscomputer business. Although Sony had  some success in the  computer gamemarket, its first entrants in the computer market were 8-bit machines. TheSMC-70 and SMC-777 are 8-bit machines were introduced in 1982 and 1984,respectively, which failed quickly in competition with 16-bit MS-DOS systems(e. g. , the IBM  PC). Sony considered developing a  16-bit microcomputer but itsoon abandoned the idea. II. Problem Analysis The development required too much effort from hardware design engineers.Engineers in small teams were required to handle all issues from logic design tomanufacturability, requiring a breadth of knowledge, which many did not have. These engineers had to put-in 60 to 70 hours a week and much more during acrisis, rendering them overworked. With  all these extra  efforts put in,  the designswere still not optimized to be manufactured Man/Engineers ? Too  much  was  required  from  thehardware design engineers. Small teams were more efficient but they requiredthat each engineer be able to handle the completerange of  design  tasks, from  high-level architecturedown to minor details.Thus the engineer's skills andknowledge had to be both broad and  deep. Method ? With the current procedure, the designswere not  optimized for  manufacturability. Because hardware design engineers were unfamiliarwith  all  of  the  manufacturing  concerns,  they  oftenmissed  simple  redesigns  that  could  makemanufacturing far more efficient. Inthe current process, it is very difficult to separatetechnology  into  neat  steps  and  for  this  reason  ittakes time  to  transfer technology. The workstationmarket is so competitive that there is no time to dothis transfer. SpecializationDesign engineering does ot have  enough expertiseto support manufact uring properly, especially as theproduct line and the number of development projectscontinue to growWorking  TimeHardware  engineers  typically  work  60-70  hours  aweek And even more during a  crises. SWOT ANALYSIS A. Strengths †¢ Recovered Investments and doubled the  annual sales since the  launch of  Ã¢â‚¬Å"NEWS† †¢ Project Manager often a Senior Engineer  B. Weaknesses †¢ Small project teams †¢ Very limited design engineers †¢ Lack of traditional management tasks †¢ Marketing power is insufficientC. Opportunities †¢ Reorganization of engineers †¢ Hiring of Highly expertise/skilled design engineersD.Threats †¢ Marketing power of competitors during this time IV. Potential Problem Analysis †¢ Additional cost in hiring highly expertise or skilled design engineers. †¢ Possible loss of market if  other competitors will  win the competition duringthat time when the marketing power is still insuff icient. †¢ Small project teams that may require them to add manpower and its costs. †¢ Engineers will continue to work too much time that could result to burn-out. †¢ Possible decrease in the annual sales of the Sony Company. †¢ Loss of precisions in the product lines if the needed expertise will not

A Lack of Tech-Friendly Policies Means US Could Loose Its Lead Essay Sample

The article â€Å"A Lack of Tech-Friendly Policies Means US Could Loose Its Lead† provides relevant treatment about deficiency of proper proficient inventions in the state. It is argued that the state strongly lacks proficient geographic expeditions. new in-migration workers policy and more low-cost instruction. The writer references that the US is a state with tremendous resources. venture capital and the best universities. but the state should move quicker to keep world’s taking place in technological domain. I think that the article is really of import for country’s policy because it highlights current jobs and challenges. Nowadays engineerings are fleetly developing in many Asiatic states. particularly in China. Japan and Korea. and. in my sentiment. the US authorities should pay more attending to policies which encourage and promote technological inventions and scientific geographic expeditions in the energetic field. Actually. the state has adept applied scientists to interchange information and proper resources to use. It goes without stating that the US is really powerful state in all domains. but nowadays the country’s authorities wages attending to contending terrorist act. war in Iraq. and racial favoritism and neglects the bedrock of economic issues which are considered the nucleus of country’s fight at the world’s scene. I agree with the writer that â€Å"innovation starts from education† . and the fact that â€Å"too many pupils are dropping out of school. and excessively few are analyzing math and science† is truly dissatisfactory for me. I think that making more occupations. actuating pupils to larn. and increasing productiveness will excite technological development of the state. The writer is really persuasive as he offers relevant grounds and claims of cardinal political figures to escalate the feeling and do people cognizant of bing jobs. However. I don’t like the thoughts of working out new atom bombs. Space missions. in my sentiment. are of import as they help to understand our universe better.

Shipping Industry Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

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Financial analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Is Rim Destined to eventually Fail Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Is Rim Destined to eventually Fail - Essay Example The growth is witnessed in terms of output, staffing and the manufacturing infrastructure. The consistent increase in volume of the company’s products ensures its competitiveness in the marketplace by confirming that the products it supplies are market-friendly and adequate to the ever-increasing number of customers. The increase in production is fueled by the adequacy of staff. Adequate staff ensure that work is concluded on time hence meeting the company deadlines. Manufacturing infrastructure on the other hand facilitates invention and innovation resulting in originality of the company products (Palmatier & Crum, 2003). Externally, there is the ever-rising pressure from the rapidly expanding consumer base; RIM products experience a short lifecycle. Therefore, they have extended manufacturing contracts to likeminded firms to help them in production to meet the ever-rising customer demands. This has extended the decision making chain resulting in complexity when it comes to market efficiency and decision-making in terms of enhancing supply chains. The software makeup of the organization is also not up to the task prompting the implementation of a decision support system for the company to ensure it continues its operations successfully (Chopra & Meindl, 2001). In the recent past RIM has been quite successful and because of this success a crop of challenges have come up threatening the success of the corporation. The company introduced seven new models of their products within the last 18 months. The challenge with these products is their shortened lifecycle that has reduced further from 2 years to a mere 1 year. Reports show that the company’s product portfolio has become very complex ranging from 18 to 100 possible end combinations of the models with only seven lines of products. This has the challenge of easily creating what we call an

Digital Media Report on Management of Innovation Essay

Digital Media Report on Management of Innovation - Essay Example The company is co-owned by Amargi Investments and UK Safety Company with the former owning 90%, while the latter being in possession of the remaining share. The initial idea was first developed at the end of year 2002 by Leigh Dowie, while in Woodside’s LNG IV Project. Being an engineer and experiencing complications in keeping the workplace accident free, he saw it as an opportunity to improve on the existing safety systems. In 2003, research was started on the existing safety systems and the problems realized in the systems prompted the embracing of technology in new designs of the security systems. Leigh Dowie went on to design new safety systems, carrying out the planning excellently and executing IP strategy, which will be explained in details in the subsequent sections. In 2005, with the design ready, Dowie approached the authorities in order to be handed a license and did promotion on the first prototype that was released in the course of the year. Comprehensive prototy ping then followed in the year 2006 with the final design being achieved in the following year. Additionally, license negotiation was carried out in 2007. Lots of efforts were put into the design in 2008 and 2009 with Dowie achieving to establish a license, trial production being run and also validation testing being done and completed. In the year 2010 early commercials trials were done on the design and the design acquired standard certification in the same year. The systems were now ready for the market by 2011 and commenced first distributor sales with Exclusive Rights being cancelled the same year. In 2012 the company has now focused on raising the capital and initiating distributor networks and direct sales Establishing an environment for innovation IP Strategies IP is the abbreviation of Intellectual Property rights, which are the rights accorded to an inventor of a design by the government so as to avoid exploitation of the inventor and also avoid a situation in which someon e else would use the design without consent from the design owner1. There are different kinds of IP rights, which chiefly depend on the kind of property being granted the right of ownership. In cases where a new design is developed or an existing design modified a patent is given to the inventor to prevent his/her work from being used by others without the inventor benefitting2. The process of maturing and sustaining an efficient IP strategy is quite cumbersome, but is very necessary before a new product is taken to the market for sales. In order to mature an IP strategy the following steps are used as guidelines: study more on the IP strategies, find more about the freedom acquired when using IP strategies, approach relevant authorities and lastly develop an inclusive IP strategy and operation plan Leigh being so much aware of the risk his innovation faced developed a competitive IP strategy making a very smart move, which should be emulated by other innovators. He patented his des ign of the two independent spools joined by a locking mechanism hence put on clear line between his invention and those that preceded his design. New Zealand, Canada and Australia all granted him safeguard for his invention from parties, which could take advantage and use the design for personal interests. Managing organizational knowledge and innovation strategies Leign is very innovative and creative, which is evident in him coming up with a very good design of a safety system

La Virgen de Guadalupe Essay Example for Free

La Virgen de Guadalupe Essay I decided to write my paper on the Virgin of Guadalupe because I was raised to praise her but I never knew how she came to be. After reading about the Virgin Mary, so many things make sense now. Ten years after the conquest of Mexico, On December 9, 1531, Juan Diego was on his way to the Convent of Tlatelolco for mass . At sunrise he reached the foot of Tepeyac. Suddenly he heard music that seemed like the chirping of thousands of birds. Very surprised he stopped, raised his eyes to the top of the hill and saw that it was illuminated with a strange bright light. The music topped and then he heard a sweet voice from the top of the hill, calling him Juanito , Juan Dieguito Juan got up fast and upon reaching the top saw the Blessed Virgin Mary in the middle of a rainbow. Her beauty and kind eyes filled his heart with joy as heard he tender words she said to him. She spoke to him in Aztec. She told him that she was the Immaculate Virgin Mary, Mother of the True God. She revealed her desperate desire to have a temple in her honor and to accomplish what my clemency pretends, she said go to the house of the Bishop of Mexico and tell him I ent you to express my great desire, that here on these plains build me a temple. She asked if he would say what he has seen and what he heard. She expressed that she would be grateful and will pay him back, because of his merit she would be happy and she would Ireward the effort and fatigue that this Journey would cause him. Juan bowed to her and said Madam, and I will fulfill your mandate, she said l dismiss you , l, your humble servant. Juan Diego came to the house of Bishop Zumarraga, he said all that the Mother of God had told him, but the Bishop did not elieve him, asking him to come back another day. That same day he returned to the top of the hill and saw the Blessed Virgin waiting. With tears of sadness he told her about his failed mission. She asked to back to see the Bishop the next day. Juan Diego met the mandate of the Blessed Virgin. This time he had better luck, the bishop asked for a sign. Juan went back to the hill, told Mary and she promised to give him a sign the next day in the morning, but Juan Diego could not complete her request because of the illness of his uncle Juan Bernardino. On December 12, Juan Bernardino Juan Diegds uncle was dying and Juan Diego rushed to bring a priest of Tlatelolco . He came to the side of the hill and decided to go through the other side to avoid being seen by the Blessed Virgin. The Blessed Virgin wanted to meet his uncle and surprised Juan Diego when she went down and out to meet him. Juan apologized for not coming the day before. After hearing the Juan Diego speak, she said, Listen and understand my son. For your heart is troubled, do not fear this nor any other sickness or anguish that is why I am here! Are you not under my shadow? Am I not our health? What else do you need? Do not be afflicted by the illness of your uncle, who will not die now of, she sure that he has healed. When Juan Diego heard these words he was happy. He asked for some proof before he was off to see the Bishop. She told him to climb to the top where you saw me and there you will find different flowers, cut them, collect them and bring them back to me. When Juan Diego reached began to cut them and laid them in her lap. She took the flowers in her hands, arranged them on the cloak and said heres the signal that you must take to the Bishop. Rigorously she commanded him that only before the Bishop unfold his cloak and discover what you wear Juan Diego stood before the Bishop Fray Juan de Zumarraga , and told him the details of the fourth illusion of the Blessed Virgin , he opened his cloak to show the flowers, which fell to the ground. The Bishop was amazed because of the appearance the image of the Blessed Virgin Mary painted with the most beautiful colors on the rough cloth of his cloak. Works Cited . web. 16 oct 2013.. N. p. . web. 17 oct 2013.. .N. p.

The Music Industry Essay Example for Free

The Music Industry Essay In this essay I will be discussing the four main areas of the music industry; I hope to gain knowledge about them and how they connect to one another so I can better myself overall as a musician. Record Labels: Record Labels are brands that are responsible for marketing the music recordings and music videos of bands/artists; there are two types of record labels, major and independent. There are only 3 major record labels left which are Universal Music Group, Warner Music Group and Sony Music Group, a record label is classed major when it has more than 5% market share. Major Record Labels There are many pros to signing to a major record label and the most obvious and perhaps most important one is that these big companies have a lot of money, this means they will be spending more money promoting your record, which means a higher chance of sales and popularity. Having more cash available also means they will invest a lot in touring, recording and music videos which will all benefit your career in a band or as a solo artist. Although the pros of signing a major record deal sounds incredibly rewarding, there is a few downsides which may cause a band/artist to be put off. Firstly, signing to a major record company won’t always last as long as the artist wants it to; if your major label is paying a lot of money to promote you they will not keep you signed if you are not selling records to return the output of money back into their pockets. A lot of the time they will sign a lot of acts just to see what ones are popular and will make money, resulting in the unpopular acts being dropped. Furthermore, things like artist unfriendly deals which leave the artist earning a lot less money than the label and not having full creative control of material are all disadvantages which could leave an artist or band seeking a better deal from in an independent label. 1 Independent Record Labels An independent record label is a label not associated with the big three major labels, a lot of artists start their career on independent labels. One pro of an independent label is that they love your music; this means they will be working harder with you, this also means you will have close working  relationships with the label due to smaller staff and a smaller roster which means you can contact your label easier and ask them questions. Also independent labels have artist friendly deals, you will have more creative control and independent labels are unlikely to contract you to multi album deals. Independent labels also have a few cons and the main one being money, which was the main pro of a major label. With less money available this will mean you won’t have large recording budgets, huge promotion deals and things like tour support, you will have to support yourself financially which is why a lot of artists would prefer a major record deal. Along with a shortage of money, other cons of indie labels include size which means less purchasing power and also disorganisation. 2 Overall I believe the best type of record label depends on preference, if an artist is seeking fame and fortune a major label deal would be best for them as more money would be available to them and they would be promoted and better known. If an artist felt strongly about the music they wrote and wanted to have full creative control an independent label would be best for them. How do I get signed? If you want to get signed to a record label you can start by sending in your demo to the AR department and then things can advance from there if they like what they hear. Record labels have separate department that help find and sign artists which is AR, they help find artists by listening to demos, going to gigs and watching recordings of bands to find talent, they would contact the artist and tell them how they would develop them as an artist. Furthermore, they find the right songs for the artist, make sure they work with the right producer and find the right studio; AR are also the department that handles contract negotiations. As an AR person you must understand what music is current and what can become popular, this is an important job and you must have a good ear as this person bridges the gap between record labels and artists and can be the person responsible for signing the next big thing. If you want to get signed to a record label you can start by sending in your demo to th e AR department and then things can advance from there if they like what they hear. i What can record labels offer you? Recording studios are also another thing that comes with a signing a record  deal, perks of a recording studio includes top of the range equipment and rooms with excellent acoustics to give your band a better sound when recording, you will also have a well-trained sound engineer to mix and produce your song, however these can be expensive and leave you with less money for things like touring. I believe recording your music in a studio will also give it a better sound which means it will also be more likely to sell. Record labels will also help you distribute your material, Retail is selling your music by physical sales or through the internet, you can sell songs and albums for digital download over the internet on multiple platforms such as iTunes or amazon, once a song is bought a percentage goes to the retailer and the rest to the artist and label. Selling your music on CD is distributed slightly different, labels will discuss with the retailer how many copies they want to order and once an amount has been agreed the cd’s will be shipped then sold. Overall I believe selling your music for digital purchase is better as internet sales are becoming very popular as people can download songs straight to their phones, also you make less of a loss if your songs don’t sell on iTunes or amazon etc. as you haven’t had to pay for CD printing.ii Music Publishing: A music publisher or music publishing company is in charge of making sure songwriters and composers receive their royalty payments when their compositions are used commercially.3 They will also help distribute and promote music that is created, license songs to record companies and copyright songs and compositions, their job is to promote and protect songs and compositions. Finding songwriters and composers in a music publishing company is also handled by AR, songwriters and composers can be found on YouTube, Twitter, Facebook and other social media sites; furthermore there are traditional methods like going to gigs to find songwriters and composers. 4 Promotion One of the most important jobs to a music publisher is promoting songs, this means getting the songs to be used in ways that earn money. They can talk to music supervisors to get songs played in films, TV shows and advertisements which can bring in a lot of money due to synchronisation rights and royalties. 5 Publishers will have a network of contacts that they can  promote to and then negotiate a license with. They can also make deals with musicians that want to use songs their clients have written/composes. It is very important that a music publisher or music publishing company promotes well because getting your music heard and recognised can be the forefront to your success. Copyright management Copyright means protecting material and allowing composers to be paid for their work, if something is copyrighted it means the creators of the material are in charge of it and can decide who uses their work and what circumstances it is used in. In a song the musical work and lyrics are both protected, to copyright something it has to be original and not copied; it must be recorded on paper or on CD. It is important a music publisher copyrights their songwriters/composers material otherwise it can be copied by other people and they will not be able to prosecute in court without copyright. 6 Performing rights Performing rights are the right to perform songs in a public place; it is part of copyright law and means the composer/songwriter and publisher will be paid, the royalties would be split 50/50. Performance rights mean a group who are not copyright holders are performing a piece of music publicly, performances are considered public if they are in a public place such as a nightclub, restaurant or at a concert. This is another reason why it is important for a music publishing company to copyright their client’s music, so they can claim royalties and money can be made from their material. Live performance: Live performance includes things like gigs and festivals, I will be discussing some of the roles that make a live performance and how they work. Promoting a Live Performance The main thing that completes a live performance is people, without people turning up to your live performance you will fail to create an atmosphere and most importantly not make any money back from the high costs of renting a venue hiring staff etc. So to get people to come along to your event/performance you need to promote. Promoting techniques you can use  include printing off posters and posting them everywhere you can, ask small shops if you can put them in the windows or even stick them to lampposts. However you need a good eye catching poster otherwise it will go unnoticed. Other ways to promote include promoting your event on social networking like Facebook and Twitter, you can create an event and invite as many people as you like; people are likely to see this as a lot of people have their phones on them all the time and will receive a notification when invited7. Online and physical ways of promoting can both be effective when done right, but if you want a large amount of people to notice your event and consider coming you need to do both online and physical promotion. Setting up a live performance To set up for a live performance you need to start by gathering some equipment. It is advisable you go and take a look at the venue a few weeks before the show day so you can see what equipment needs to be brought along, things to look out for include seeing if the venue has a PA, if not you may want to hire or invest in one; if you are hosting the event at your own venue it is worth buying your own PA to save money in the long term. Other things include staging space, make sure there is ample floor space for the performers to stand and you may want to bring a stage/drum riser if there aren’t any there already. Lighting can also be important in bringing atmosphere to a performance. Finally, you will at least a handful of staff on the night such as security, stagehands and a sound engineer. 8When hosting an event you may want to choose for more expensive equipment whilst saving money on staff, good equipment will improve sound and experience meaning people will want to come aga in; but you can get away with hiring people for not much at all as people are happy to get into a free show and help. Health and safety Health and safety precautions at a live performance are incredibly important, start by making sure there is a person in charge of first aid as this is also the law; people are likely to get hurt in a crowd of people by tripping up or bumping into people. Secondly, when sorting and setting up electrical equipment you need to make sure wires are not across the stage in the air as this could cause a trip hazard for performers and also make sure there are no trip hazards in the crowd standing space also. Another precaution to take is making sure staging is secured properly; if heavy staging equipment is not put together correctly accidents could happen causing big injuries which could mean you not being able to host events again. A final thing to take into consideration is noise level, when hosting a live event you are granted a license with rules of decibel level and if you exceed this level you would not be granted another license so another live performance would not be possible. I believe taking all of these health and safety precautions is fundamental to looking after everyone at a venue and will mean things can run smoothly without any inconvenience. 9 Tour and event management An event manger means you will be in charge of a number of jobs, firstly you’ll need to find your venue that is suitable to your event; and then you need to book your acts. After you have sorted this you need to check health and safety is okay and then make sure the night runs smoothly. An event manager is an important role in making sure a live performance goes to plan, the audience may not notice the hard work of an event manager but if it wasn’t for them there would be no show. A tour manager is slightly different; they are in charge of booking venues as well as hotels and what crews are in charge of health and safety, security etc. I believe that tour and event management plays a huge part to live performance and makes things tick, without tour and event managers everything would be unorganised and would not go smoothly. Front of house and Backstage Starting with front of house, this includes a wide range of jobs such as door staff; these can be security or people that accept tickets. People at food stalls or bars are also included, these people are important as they can keep the audience refreshed with drinks and food. Front of house staff can be important as they are what the audience see so they need to be calm and relaxed so things run according to plan and not to distress anyone at the venue. Backstage staff covers a few more roles, they include the sound engineer who controls the levels and quality of the band’s sound to put on a good sounding performance for the crowd, secondly there are instrument technicians for drums, bass, guitar so if any instruments fail in any way they are there to fix it or provide a new instrument e.g. backup  guitar/bass. Other roles include a lighting technician to give the performance visual effect and also a pyro-technician who is in charge of any fireworks or fire during the performance. Backstage managers will make sure acts are ready to go on stage at the correct time; roadies are in charge of moving and packing equipment away for the end of the set or for the next act. Backstage staffs are just as important as the acts themselves, this job needs to be done effectively and communication is key otherwise things could fall apart very quickly. Performance rights When hosting a live performance you need to make sure you are licensed to play music, you must have the correct copyright licenses, having these is a legal requirement. PRS collects royalties for songwriters, publishers and composers and PPL collects royalties for performers and musicians. You also need public liability insurance, and if any DJ’s are performing they will need a ProDub licence; this is needed for when a DJ is transferring music from a vinyl, CD etc. to a digital format. If they do not have this license you may face fines or legal prosecution. Artist management Business and Tour managers Business managers are in charge of all the money to do with the artist, they are usually accountants that have experience with musicians, day to day managers can also take care of finances but they usually have a lot more things to do so it is helpful to have a business manager for this. A tour manager takes care of booking venues, hotels, flights and things like selecting a tour bus etc. Tour managers are important because they get the artist/band from one place to another and make sure things run smoothly, a good tour manager needs to be organised so the band makes it on time to gigs, interviews and recordings. Having managers can be very helpful to an artist; however they will need to be paid so it’s important to decide what mangers you definitely need. 10 Artist and managers rights In the music industry artist and managers rights must be abided by, otherwise you could be brought to court; artist rights include being paid their royalties due to copyright, these are usually songs played on the radio/television etc. Manager’s rights are slightly different they include  being paid fairly and that all contract terms are kept to, if they aren’t it means the manager can terminate the contract at any time. I believe it is very important managers and artists rights are abided by because you may end up in court if contract terms are breached. Sponsorship Sponsorship does not always mean getting free stuff from the company that is sponsoring you, it means when two businesses come together to benefit from the association of one another. Sponsorship deals can be gained by the artist’s manager, it can mean money is offered to an artist and in the return the artist will wear, promote the brand. This is a very good way for an artist to earn income; it also makes artists/bands noticed. Endorsement is slightly different as it means artists can use the companies gear, this is good as it opens the company to a lot of fans and allows the artist to use top of the range equipment. I think sponsorship deals are good as they benefit both parties and can allow a lot of income to the artist and company. Merchandise Merchandise can include clothing, CDs and stickers. The merchandise should include a creative logo that goes with the name of the band, stickers are useful as they can be stuck anywhere and promote your band. Merchandise can be sold after shows and also online which is useful if people cannot get to them at a show, selling merchandise is a great way to make money as people will pay high prices to own a t shirt with their favourite bands name and logo on it. It’s also a good promotion technique, if people are walking the streets with your band name on their t shirt soon your bands name will become familiar to people and they will tempted to listen to your music. However, you need to make sure your designs are effective and not offensive because bad merchandise may put people off of your music. Merchandising is a very popular and important way of earning money and getting your band noticed, I believe it is a very good way to help an artist/band’s success. In this essay I have talked about and explained the four areas of the music industry, I have gained knowledge which will benefit my career as a musician, with this knowledge I now have an understanding about various careers in the music industry also.

Mild hypoxemia with a fully compensated respiratory acidosis

Mild hypoxemia with a fully compensated respiratory acidosis 92% 100%The following 5 ABG analyses were formulated using Pierces (2007) systematic analyses (p.55 60). Normal values according to Pierce are listed as follows: The systematic analysis is done by first looking at each number individually and labeling it. Second describing the adequacy of oxygenation by assessing PaO2 and SaO2. Pierce (2007) lists hypoxemia as mild ( ABG #1 FiO2 0.21 pH 7.40 Normal PaCO2 50 Acidemia PaO2 71 Hypoxemia HCO3 30.9 Alkalemia BE 5.0 Alkalemia SaO2 95.1 Normal Hb 12.9 Mr. Puffins PaO2 of 71 shows mild hypoxemia, with a SaO2 within normal limits. His pH of 7.40 is neutral and shows that his acid base status is within normal limits; however his PaCO2 of 50 demonstrates that he is acidotic and his elevated HCO3 indicates compensation is occurring. These results suggest Mr. Puffin has a mild hypoxemia with a fully compensated respiratory acidosis. His normal pH indicates full compensation is occurring, ABG#2 FiO2 0.50 pH 7.14 Acidemia PaCO2 127 Acidemia PaO2 44.2 Hypoxemia HCO3 41.6 Alkalemia BE 7.1 Alkalemia SaO2 69.2 Hypoxemia Hb 14.1 Mr. Puffins PaO2 and SaO2 show he has a severe hypoxemia. His pH of 7.14 is indicative that he is acidotic. His PaCO2 is elevated which shows the acidemia is respiratory in origin. The elevated HCO3 of 41.6 shows that metabolic compensation is occurring, therefore these results indicate Mr. Puffin has severe hypoxemia with a partially compensated respiratory acidosis. ABG #3 FiO2 0.40 pH 7.22 Acidemia PaCO2 99.6 Acidemia PaO2 45.3 Hypoxemia HCO3 39.9 Alkalemia BE 8.3 Alkalemia SaO2 Hb ABG #3 shows Mr. Puffins respiratory acidosis has improved due to BiPAP therapy. There is a slight increase in his PaO2 although it still shows severe hypoxemia. His pH has improved but still shows acidemia. PaCO2 has decreased due to BiPAP therapy but remains elevated and indicates respiratory remains his primary cause of acidosis. Mr. Puffins HCO3 is also still elevated indicative of partial compensation occurring. ABG #3 shows Mr. Puffin still remains severely hypoxic, with a partially compensated respiratory acidosis. ABG #4 FiO2 0.40 pH 7.32 Acidemia PaCO2 71.9 Acidemia PaO2 55.6 Hypoxemia HCO3 36.1 Alkalemia BE 8.0 Alkalemia SaO2 Hb ABG #4 shows further improvement in Mr. Puffins severe hypoxemia and respiratory acidosis. His PaO2 has increased further but still shows a severe hypoxemia. His pH although increased still suggests mild acidosis, as well as his PaCO2 of 71.9, although it has decreased, still indicates a respiratory origin. HCO3 remains elevated showing compensation is occurring; therefore Mr. Puffin still has severe hypoxemia with a partially compensated respiratory acidosis. ABG #5 FiO2 0.28 pH 7.00 Acidemia PaCO2 59.1 Acidemia PaO2 62.4 Hypoxemia HCO3 18 Acidemia BE -7.8 Acidemia SaO2 92% Hb 14.2 Mr. Puffins 5th ABG PaO2, indicates moderate hypoxemia. His pH is low and shows he is acidotic. An elevated PaCO2 suggests acidemia respiratory in nature. HCO3 is also low which also shows acidemia metabolic in nature. Mr. Puffin in ABG #5 has a moderate hypoxemia with a mixed respiratory and metabolic acidosis confirmed by the decreased BE. Question Two: What type of respiratory failure does Mr. Puffin have? Provide a rationale for your answer based on the clinical information supplied. Differentiate between Type 1 and Type 2 Respiratory failure. Respiratory failure as described by Pierce (2007) is the absence of the normal homeostatic state of ventilation as it relates to acid base status of the blood and the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide (p.181). Type 1 respiratory failure, Pierce (2007), describes as a failure to oxygenate or hypoxemic respiratory failure, categorized by a PaO2 of less than 60mm Hg on an FiO2 of more than 0.5, and Type 2 respiratory failure as failure to ventilate, also called ventilatory failure, hypercapnic respiratory failure, or respiratory pump failure, as a PaCO2 of greater than 50mm Hg, with a pH of 7.25 or less (p.181-182). In contrast to Pierces definition Hennessey Japp (2007) define respiratory failure as respiratory impairment. Hennessy Japp define type 1 respiratory impairment as low PaO2 with normal or low PaCO2 which implies defective oxygenation despite adequate ventilation and the PaCO2 is low due to compensatory hyperventilation (p.20). Hennessey Japp (2007), define type 2 respiratory impairment as a high PaCO2 (hypercapnia), and is due to inadequate alveolar ventilation, and since oxygenation also depends on ventilation, the PaO2 is usually low, but may be normal if the patient is on supplemental oxygen (p.22). Type 1 respiratory failure is most commonly caused by VQ mismatch, pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, pneumothorax, pulmonary edema, shunt and acute respiratory distress syndrome and initial treatment is aimed at achieving an adequate PaO2 and SaO2 with supplemental O2 while attempting to correct the underlying cause, Hennessey Japp (2007) p. 20. Type 2 respiratory failure is commonly caused by chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, exhaustion, flail chest injury, opiate/benzodiazepine toxicity, neuromuscular disorders and obstructive sleep apnea, with clinical signs that include confusion, drowsiness. Based on the case study information it is evident Mr. Puffin has Type 2 respiratory failure. The diagnosis of type 2 respiratory failure could be made through the interpretation of ABG #2 as he has a decreased pH and elevated PaCO2 with hypoxemia. His presentation of his difficulty breathing, productive green cough, drowsiness and confusion are consistent with the presentation of an acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease due to his previous diagnosis made by his doctor of emphysema. Question Three: What is BiPAP? BiPAP (Bi Level Positive Airway Pressure) is a form of non invasive mechanical ventilation commonly administered to patients with exacerbations of type 2 respiratory failure, that delivers two airway pressures through inspiration, (IPAP), and expiration, (EPAP) measured in cm H20. IPAP is the abbreviation for Inspiratory Positive Airway Pressure and EPAP is the abbreviation for Expiratory Positive Airway Pressure. BiPAP is delivered to the patient through an appropriate bilevel ventilator eg Vision BiPAP, or Respironics BiPAP, through a nasal mask, full face mask, or total face mask. Describe the effects of BiPAP. In your answer consider its effects on airway pressures, the alveoli, the lung, and the cardiovascular and neurological systems. When BiPAP is administered to a patient with type 2 respiratory failure, during inspiration (IPAP) a higher level of positive airway pressure is delivered, increasing breath size, which helps to clear out carbon dioxide and assumes a fatigued patients work of breathing, and during expiration (EPAP) prevents atelectasis, recruits collapsed alveoli and enables gas exchange between breaths (Woodrow 2003). The difference between IPAP and EPAP is termed pressure support so for example if Mr. Puffin was commenced on 12 cm H20 IPAP and 6 cm H20 EPAP he would have 6 cm H20 being the being the difference between 12 and 6 of pressure support. Pressure support decreases the work of breathing by initiating breathing and increasing tidal volume. Question Four: Outline the clinical indications for the use of BiPAP in Mr Puffins case. Discuss the monitoring that would be required for the safe application of BiPAP. List the possible complications of BiPAP that may occur in Mr Puffins case.

GOYA :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Francisco Jose de Goya y Lucientes was born on March 30, 1746, in Fuendetodos, a village in northern Spain. The family later moved to Saragossa, where Goya's father worked as a gilder. At fourteen years old, Goya was apprenticed to Jose Luzan, a local painter. Later he went to Italy to continue his study of art. On returning to Saragossa in 1771, he painted frescoes for the local cathedral. These works, done in the decorative rococo tradition, established Goya's artistic reputation. In 1773 he married Josefa Bayeu, sister of Saragossa artist Francisco Bayeu. The couple had many children, but only one--a son, Xavier--survived to adulthood.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  From 1775 to 1792 Goya painted cartoons (designs) for the royal tapestry factory in Madrid. This was the most important period in his artistic development. As a tapestry designer, Goya did his first genre paintings, or scenes from everyday life. The experience helped him become a keen observer of human behavior. He was also influenced by neoclassicism, which was gaining favor over the rococo style. Finally, his study of the works of Velazquez in the royal collection resulted in a looser, more spontaneous painting technique.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At the same time, Goya achieved his first popular success. He became established as a portrait painter to the Spanish aristocracy. He was elected to the Royal Academy of San Fernando in 1780, named painter to the king in 1786, and made a court painter in 1789. A serious illness in 1792 left Goya permanently deaf. Isolated from others by his deafness, he became increasingly occupied with the fantasies and inventions of his imagination and with critical and satirical observations of mankind. He evolved a bold, free new style close to caricature. In 1799 he published the Caprichos, a series of etchings satirizing human folly and weakness. His portraits became penetrating characterizations, revealing their subjects as Goya saw them. In his religious frescoes he employed a broad, free style and an earthy realism unprecedented in religious art.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Goya served as director of painting at the Royal Academy from 1795 to 1797 and was appointed first Spanish court painter in 1799. During the Napoleonic invasion and the Spanish war of independence from 1808 to 1814, Goya served as court painter to the French. He expressed his horror of armed conflict in The Disasters of War, a series of starkly realistic etchings on the atrocities of war. They were not published until 1863, long after Goya's death.

Cochlear Implants :: Hearing Deafness Auditory Essays

Cochlear Implants As the life expectancy of the general population continues to increase, so has the number of people experiencing varying types of perceptual loss. One area of perceptual loss that is gaining more and more recognition is auditory functioning. The number of individuals experiencing a post-lingual hearing loss, or hearing loss after the acquisition of language, is increasing among the older adults in our society. This increase has facilitated a need for a means of managing such a loss of functioning. The group of people affected by hearing loss is by no means strictly limited to older adults. Pre-lingually deaf children and adults, as well as, postlingually deafened individuals can benefit from the technology that is currently being developed and refined for the management of hearing loss. The conventional hearing aid is probably the most common device pictured when thinking in terms of managing hearing loss. However, another option that may not be as well known is the cochlear implant. The cochlear implant is a relatively new option in the management of hearing loss. Cochlear implants amplify sound, code sound into an electrical signal, and send those signals into the auditory nerve. The signal then travels to the auditory brainstem and onward to the temporal lobe of the brain for interpretation. The cochlear implant system consists of internal and external components. The internal components include a receiver, an internal magnet, and an electrode array. During a surgical procedure, a space is made in the mastoid bone behind the ear. This space holds the internal magnet and receiver. The electrode array is then placed in contact with the nerve endings in the cochlea. After implantation surgery, the skin and hair around the incision are allowed to heal for about five weeks. Then the patient is fitted with the external components of the implant. These components include a microphone, an external transmitter coil, cords, and a speech processor. The microphone is attached to the ear by means of an earhook. The microphone picks up sound waves and sends them to the transmitter for convertion into an electrical signal. The transmitter coil is held in place against the patient's head by means of an external magnet that is attracted to the internal magnet. A cord connects the microphone to the transmitter coil. Another cord then connects the microphone to the speech processor. The speech processor contains a software program that determines how sound waves will be coded and transformed into electrical impulses.

Codeswitching from English Essay example -- Language

The use of codeswitching between English and other languages is examined from a sociolinguistic perspective. It will be shown that codeswitching is instinctive and achieves overarching objectives such as serving the outcome of speech, defining identity and indirectly delineating aspects of the relationship between the participants, it 'lubricates' the conversation by making it more 'fluid', and when English is used, brings clarity and precision, particularly to formal arrangements. Finally codeswitching from English as a component of 'metrolinguistics' will be considered in relation to the data provided. The extracts are between G. D. Jayalakshmi, known as Jaya, who normally speaks English (but also Kannada, a south Indian language, Bengali, some Punjabi and Tamil), Nitin and Prathibha, who are work colleagues, and her brother Jagadish, known as Jaggu. The script of the conversations can be found in the U214 Assignments document pages 3 and 4, and the line numbering references are as used there. In the first conversation between Jaya and Nitin, Jaya points out in her commentary, that in 1.1 Nitin begins in English 'because the conversation is about work', in 1.2 she replies in Kannada, to demonstrate her friendliness toward him whilst observing that Nitin's use of English is due, not only to the work context, but also his knowledge that she has lived in England for many years and he too, wishes to show her friendliness by using English. Jaya concludes that they have used two languages to get closer, but they finish the conversation, 1.6 to 1.11 in English, which, talking to Pratibha in dialogue 2 she describes as the language of 'definiteness', or again in 4, with Jaggu, 'of arrangements'. The few words at the start of this ... ...OM), Milton Keynes, The Open University. English in the World, (2012), (U214, Worlds of English, DVD ROM), Milton Keynes, The Open University. McCormick, K. (2012), 'English and Other Languages' in Seargeant, P. and Swann, J. (ed.) History, Diversity, Change (U214, English in the World), Milton Keynes, The Open University, pp. 245-290. Meyerhoff, M. and Strycharz, A. (2012), 'Variation and Change in English' in Seargeant, P. and Swann, J. (ed.) History, Diversity, Change (U214, English in the World), Milton Keynes, The Open University, pp. 291-329. North, S. (2012), 'English a Linguistic Toolkit' (U214, Worlds of English), Milton Keynes, The Open University. Transcript, 'Clip 1.6.3 Codeswitching between English, Kannada and Hindi' printed from English: a Linguistic Tool Kit, (2012), (U214, Worlds of English, DVD ROM), Milton Keynes, The Open University.

Snake Venom

Venom Venom Types Methods of Production Methods of Delivery Offense or Defense? Lethal injection or False alarm? Mysteries Warnings To most people venom and snakes go hand in hand. It is commonly believed that all snakes are venomous, but this is an erroneous belief. Of the 2. 700 known species of snake only 300 are venomous. So what is venom, how did snakes get it and why do they have it? These are questions that have interested herpetologists and other scientists alike. Venom itself is a poison secreted by animals for either defensive or offensive purposes.Venom originated from digestive enzymes that were originally located in the stomach. Throughout the millions of years it has progressed quite a lot and in some animals has become quite different from it's origin. The type of venom depends on the type of animal. In spiders venom is kept rather simple. It is pretty much just digestive enzymes. Spiders use their venom to turn their hard shelled insect meals into nice and nutritious goo. So in a sense one can think of this type of venom as a form of starting the digestive process before you even start to eat the meal.In insects venom is used predominantly as a defensive weapon. Wasps, bees and ants use formic acid in their stings to cause a painful burning sensation that will either kill or injure their enemy enough to make them think twice about attacking them again. Amphibians all use their venom for defense. In amphibians the venom is secreted through glands in the skin to make the animals unpalatable. So as we can see venom is a predominantly defensive adaptation. An adaptation that has found it's way into every class of vertebrates except one. The birds; the only class to forego any venom.In mammals we have platypi with venomous claws, then there are the fish which comprise too many venomous species to count and finally we have the reptiles. All venomous reptiles are squamates and of them snakes make up the bulk. There are only two species of venomous squa mates that are not snakes, the lizards of the genus: Heloderma. These lizards use their venom for defense as well and can deliver powerful and painful bites. In snakes venom has found a new use, for offense. Since snake prey generally has the advantage of speed (not to say that snakes can't be speedy. A black mamba traveling at 17 mph is nothing to sneeze at. snakes had to find a new way to take down their prey without running the risk of losing them or getting too hurt in the process. Enter venom, a fast and effective mode of subdueing prey items with minimal risk to the snake. Venom types Snake venom can be divided into two broad (yet fuzzy) categories. That of hemotoxicity and neurotoxicity. Hemotoxic venom effects the blood and organs, causing a breakdown or inflammation in the body. Hemotoxic bites are the most painful as breathing hurts and tissues start to die. Neurotoxic venom, as the name suggests, effect the nervous system, leading to everything from siezures to death.Neur otoxic bites are the most deadly. Although we have these two wonderful different categories, no snake fits completely in each. Many snakes incorporate both neurotoxic and hemotoxic venom in their bites so when telling them apart one goes by which type is more predominant. For instance Ophiophagous hannah (King Cobra) has predominantly neurotoxic venom while Crotalus adamanteus (Eastern diamondback rattlesnake) has predominantly hemotoxic venom. Methods of production While getting bitten by a snake might strike fear in people, the fangs are not where the venom comes from, they are mearly methods of transfer.The place where the venom is made is in special glands located on the head of the animal. The venom glands differentiate into false and true venom glands. False venom glands (a misleading name no doubt) are made up either from mucus producing supralabial glands that run on either side of the head extending as a continuous strip from near the snout to below and well behind the eye. These then lead to several ducts that lead to the bases of many maxillary teeth. Alethinophidians are known to have this type of arrangement. Most colubrids have a different arrangement.Rather than use those modified salivary glands they use a larger gland known as the Duvernoy's gland. This gland is situated right under the skin, above and near the angle of the jaw. These glands open from a duct at the base of one or more posterior usually enlarged fangs that may or may not be grooved. These glands do not have a lumen (central storage chamber) so the snakes must give off a continous stream of venom into their prey which means that they must continue to hold on to the animal to ensure envenomation. True venom glands are made uf thick connective tissue.They contain a lumen, a separate compressor muscle and a duct connecting them to a single fang on each side of the jaw. These glands dominate all elapids and viperids (along with some atractaspidids) Methods of Delivery Their are four main types of teeth in snakes with which venom is transferred from gland to prey. While these forms seem to indicate a continual progression towards more complexity, they are misleading as it doesn't take into account the morphological variation in snake dentitions making for a paraphyletic occurence (that is they all thought up different ways to accomplish the same goal).Aglyphous snakes Aglyphous (grooveless) snakes lack any groove in their teeth for venom to run down. Instead the venom drips down the teeth from any available opening essentially saturating the maxillae. In order for envenomation to occur the snake must chew on it's prey which is time consuming. Aglyphous snakes include blind snakes and some colubrids. Opisthoglyphous snakes Opisthoglyphous (rear grooved) snakes have elongate fangs located on the top of the back of their mouths. These fangs have a groove running on the lateral side of the fang which helps direct venom into the prey.Since the fangs are located post eriorly the snake must make a point of taking a big bite into it's prey in order to assure envenomation. Colubrids make up the bulk of this group. Proteroglyphs Proteroglyphs (front groove) snakes are pretty much all elapids with an occasional actractaspidid like Homoroselaps (Harlequin snakes). In proteroglyphs the groove has run so deep that both sides of the groove overlap eachother forming a channel for the venom to flow. A lumen is located at the base of the tooth where venom eagerly awaits ejection while a discharge orifice lay on one side near the tip.An adductor (jaw closing) muscle is attached to the glands so that when the snake bites down the glands get squeezed and a stream of venom flows into the prey. These snakes are â€Å"fixed fanged. † That is to say they are unable to fold up their fangs when not in use so the fangs must be kept short enough so as not to puncture the lower jaw. Interestingly enough fixed fanged elapids are known to hold onto their prey afte r biting. This would seem to present a potential hazard for the snake, but the predominantly neurotoxic venom works so fast that the prey doesn't have enough time to struggle, thus ensuring the snake it's meal.Some cobra types such as the rinkhals (Hemachatus haemachatus) and many species of Afro-Asian cobras (Naja sp. ) have the ability to spit their venom at predators. Their fang tips have beveled, circular (sometimes pear shaped) apertures on the anterior surface just above the tip where the venom is ejected. African spitters go one stepped further. They have spiral grooves in their fangs that (like the riflings of a gun barrel) force a spin on the venom allowing for greater accuracy. This is only used in defense and is amazing effective as these snakes are adepth marksmen.By expending venom in these little droplets, the snake is guaranteed the maximum use of it's (normally offensive) venom when battling a predator. How often can these snakes spit before running out. Well one bla ck necked spitting cobra (Naja nigricollis) emptied it's venom glands by spitting fifty seven times in only twenty minutes. Truly a force to be reckoned with. Solenoglyphous snakes Solenoglyphous (pipe grooved) snakes make up the viperidae and show some of the most specialized teeth for the job.Viperid fangs have the groove so deep now that the outside of the teeth completely cover it forming a pipe for venom to enter. The two fangs are attached to a short highly movable maxillary bone. This bone allows the snakes to fold their fangs up in their mouths. This ability to fold up the fangs allows for greater fang length. How much greater? Well compare a 3. 83-m Ophiophagous hannah's 11mm fangs to a 1. 8-m Bitis gabonica (Gaboon viper) with fangs measuring 29mm. Impressive no? Viperids have predominantly hemotoxic venom and as such, their bites take longer to take effect.Since the effect is longer, the snake can't risk holding onto the struggling prey for it would surely get hurt, but w ith their potent venom, quick strikes and hyperextendable fangs, these snakes are able to get in and out extremely fast. Not only can the fangs hyperextend (up to 1800) but with the separately jointed maxillae the fangs can move individually as well. So a viper can decide whether or not to move one fang or two. Inject one side or two. The amount of venom control in vipers is astounding as well as their venom reservoirs. The bulk of Bitis gabonica's head is it's venom glands. Shocking!Offense or Defense As stated before, snakes predominantly use their venom to capture prey, but when push comes to shove, venom can mean the difference between life and death. Snake defense is rather limited when one thinks about it. They can't outrun their predators, a lack of limbs means that gaining the leverage for tail whipping is rather impossible (pointless anyway seeing as how most snakes have rather small tails). Some snakes can secrete nasty substances that make them unwanted to be around. Othe rs feign their own deaths, but in general the best area of defense for snakes lies in their jaws.For a venomous snake, biting a predator means wasting precious venom; a commodity that doesn't come without it's price. Venom costs energy to make and takes a while to refill when empty. A snake would much rather save that venom for something worth it like food, so it takes quite a bit of pressing to get a venomous snake to actually bite. In fact it is for these reasons that venomous snakes have adopted so many warning strategies. From warning colors, to hoods, to rattles, venomous snakes do everything in their power to avoid biting the enemy. In contrast a boid or other constrictor will readily bite in defense.While they lack venom, recurved teeth can be just as bad and since constrictors don't have to worry about wasting venom they can feel free to bite all they want. Lethal injection or False alarm? Along with warning well in advance, another common thing found in venomous snakes (esp ecially viperids) is giving what is known as a â€Å"dry bite. † Dry bites occur when a snake like a rattler is cornered and forced to bite in defense. While the snake might be in last resort mode, it still has one more trick up it's sleeve. Venomous snakes (true venomous snakes) have the ability to choose whether or not they want to inject venom into something.So if a rattlesnake bites a dog, it has the choice of either envenomating or bluffing the animal. In nature bluffs work much of the time and are the safest way for an animal to avoid a fight. By giving off a dry bite, venomous snakes need not waste their venom supplies. In fact over half of all rattlesnake bites are dry ones. A very comforting thought. Mysteries of Venomous Snakes One of the strangest things about elapids and viperids is that they seem to have evolved venom that is too potent for their own good. For instance, a Western rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis) injects it's prey (a mouse) with 300 times more venom than is necessary.Or the Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus) which injects enough venom in one bite to kill two hundred thousand mice. Why the excess? No one knows for sure. Perhaps the mechanisms that produced the venom never had any buffers for how powerful it got. Since the evolution of new traits involves the constantly ascending path (new traits are only kept if beneficial to the organism) the fact that ever potent venom would always guarantee the quick death of the prey means that it would always be selected for and will be until something comes to counter it.While this is a nice theory and all, there is an underlying problem with it. Venomous snakes (of at least the elapid and viperid families) are able to meter out how much venom they intend to inject into their prey. So that Crotalus viridis is quite aware of the amount it is pumping into that mouse. Plus since venom replenishment is not the fastest thing (averaging between 4 days and three weeks) injecting so much ve nom seems wasteful. Another theory proposed was that it the venom helps to begin the digestion process. Surely this seems reasonable especially considered how venom effects tissue along with it's origins.Yet that too does not give a perfect explanation for Brown tree snakes (Boiga irregularis) which inject three to eight times more venom than necessary, end up with half of that venom lodged in the skin. So for now, the reasons behind the excess venom delivery by venomous snakes are still unknown. Warnings about venom While no person should actively go out and try to capture a venomous snake (without good reason) in the even that one finds said snake, the best precautions are to examine the encounter. If you're far enough away to leave then feel free to do so, you need not worry about the snake following you.If you're practically stepping on the snake things could be worse. At that point though one usually finds that one has been bitten. If bitten make sure to ID the snake. Remember as much as possible about it. For an idea of the type of venom that might have been injected in you consider the area that you are at and how the snake looked. Vipers, due to their large venom glands, have heart shaped heads. Elapids have nice thin heads. Colubrids are harder to tell apart from elapids, but a venomous elapid will give warning or have some type of forewarning available.Colubrid bites normally don't kill and are more a pain than anything else. Viper bites can be deadly and normally are very painful. Elapid bites are extremely lethal and antivenin treatment is a must if bitten. Although all this seems scary, it's best to remember that no venomous snake will attack without severe provocation. Look for the warning signs and watch where you step and you should be fine. Also remember many bites given are dry, so just because you were bitten doesn't mean you were envenomated. A good rule of thumb when dealing with a scared or cornered snake is that the last thing it's going to want to do is bite.Venom Venom Types Methods of Production Methods of Delivery Offense or Defense? Lethal injection or False alarm? Mysteries Warnings To most people venom and snakes go hand in hand. It is commonly believed that all snakes are venomous, but this is an erroneous belief. Of the 2. 700 known species of snake only 300 are venomous. So what is venom, how did snakes get it and why do they have it? These are questions that have interested herpetologists and other scientists alike. Venom itself is a poison secreted by animals for either defensive or offensive purposes.Venom originated from digestive enzymes that were originally located in the stomach. Throughout the millions of years it has progressed quite a lot and in some animals has become quite different from it's origin. The type of venom depends on the type of animal. In spiders venom is kept rather simple. It is pretty much just digestive enzymes. Spiders use their venom to turn their hard shelled insect meals i nto nice and nutritious goo. So in a sense one can think of this type of venom as a form of starting the digestive process before you even start to eat the meal.In insects venom is used predominantly as a defensive weapon. Wasps, bees and ants use formic acid in their stings to cause a painful burning sensation that will either kill or injure their enemy enough to make them think twice about attacking them again. Amphibians all use their venom for defense. In amphibians the venom is secreted through glands in the skin to make the animals unpalatable. So as we can see venom is a predominantly defensive adaptation. An adaptation that has found it's way into every class of vertebrates except one. The birds; the only class to forego any venom.In mammals we have platypi with venomous claws, then there are the fish which comprise too many venomous species to count and finally we have the reptiles. All venomous reptiles are squamates and of them snakes make up the bulk. There are only two species of venomous squamates that are not snakes, the lizards of the genus: Heloderma. These lizards use their venom for defense as well and can deliver powerful and painful bites. In snakes venom has found a new use, for offense. Since snake prey generally has the advantage of speed (not to say that snakes can't be speedy. A black mamba traveling at 17 mph is nothing to sneeze at. snakes had to find a new way to take down their prey without running the risk of losing them or getting too hurt in the process. Enter venom, a fast and effective mode of subdueing prey items with minimal risk to the snake. Venom types Snake venom can be divided into two broad (yet fuzzy) categories. That of hemotoxicity and neurotoxicity. Hemotoxic venom effects the blood and organs, causing a breakdown or inflammation in the body. Hemotoxic bites are the most painful as breathing hurts and tissues start to die. Neurotoxic venom, as the name suggests, effect the nervous system, leading to everything fro m siezures to death.Neurotoxic bites are the most deadly. Although we have these two wonderful different categories, no snake fits completely in each. Many snakes incorporate both neurotoxic and hemotoxic venom in their bites so when telling them apart one goes by which type is more predominant. For instance Ophiophagous hannah (King Cobra) has predominantly neurotoxic venom while Crotalus adamanteus (Eastern diamondback rattlesnake) has predominantly hemotoxic venom. Methods of production While getting bitten by a snake might strike fear in people, the fangs are not where the venom comes from, they are mearly methods of transfer.The place where the venom is made is in special glands located on the head of the animal. The venom glands differentiate into false and true venom glands. False venom glands (a misleading name no doubt) are made up either from mucus producing supralabial glands that run on either side of the head extending as a continuous strip from near the snout to below and well behind the eye. These then lead to several ducts that lead to the bases of many maxillary teeth. Alethinophidians are known to have this type of arrangement. Most colubrids have a different arrangement.Rather than use those modified salivary glands they use a larger gland known as the Duvernoy's gland. This gland is situated right under the skin, above and near the angle of the jaw. These glands open from a duct at the base of one or more posterior usually enlarged fangs that may or may not be grooved. These glands do not have a lumen (central storage chamber) so the snakes must give off a continous stream of venom into their prey which means that they must continue to hold on to the animal to ensure envenomation. True venom glands are made uf thick connective tissue.They contain a lumen, a separate compressor muscle and a duct connecting them to a single fang on each side of the jaw. These glands dominate all elapids and viperids (along with some atractaspidids) Methods of Delivery Their are four main types of teeth in snakes with which venom is transferred from gland to prey. While these forms seem to indicate a continual progression towards more complexity, they are misleading as it doesn't take into account the morphological variation in snake dentitions making for a paraphyletic occurence (that is they all thought up different ways to accomplish the same goal).Aglyphous snakes Aglyphous (grooveless) snakes lack any groove in their teeth for venom to run down. Instead the venom drips down the teeth from any available opening essentially saturating the maxillae. In order for envenomation to occur the snake must chew on it's prey which is time consuming. Aglyphous snakes include blind snakes and some colubrids. Opisthoglyphous snakes Opisthoglyphous (rear grooved) snakes have elongate fangs located on the top of the back of their mouths. These fangs have a groove running on the lateral side of the fang which helps direct venom into the prey.Since th e fangs are located posteriorly the snake must make a point of taking a big bite into it's prey in order to assure envenomation. Colubrids make up the bulk of this group. Proteroglyphs Proteroglyphs (front groove) snakes are pretty much all elapids with an occasional actractaspidid like Homoroselaps (Harlequin snakes). In proteroglyphs the groove has run so deep that both sides of the groove overlap eachother forming a channel for the venom to flow. A lumen is located at the base of the tooth where venom eagerly awaits ejection while a discharge orifice lay on one side near the tip.An adductor (jaw closing) muscle is attached to the glands so that when the snake bites down the glands get squeezed and a stream of venom flows into the prey. These snakes are â€Å"fixed fanged. † That is to say they are unable to fold up their fangs when not in use so the fangs must be kept short enough so as not to puncture the lower jaw. Interestingly enough fixed fanged elapids are known to h old onto their prey after biting. This would seem to present a potential hazard for the snake, but the predominantly neurotoxic venom works so fast that the prey doesn't have enough time to struggle, thus ensuring the snake it's meal.Some cobra types such as the rinkhals (Hemachatus haemachatus) and many species of Afro-Asian cobras (Naja sp. ) have the ability to spit their venom at predators. Their fang tips have beveled, circular (sometimes pear shaped) apertures on the anterior surface just above the tip where the venom is ejected. African spitters go one stepped further. They have spiral grooves in their fangs that (like the riflings of a gun barrel) force a spin on the venom allowing for greater accuracy. This is only used in defense and is amazing effective as these snakes are adepth marksmen.By expending venom in these little droplets, the snake is guaranteed the maximum use of it's (normally offensive) venom when battling a predator. How often can these snakes spit before r unning out. Well one black necked spitting cobra (Naja nigricollis) emptied it's venom glands by spitting fifty seven times in only twenty minutes. Truly a force to be reckoned with. Solenoglyphous snakes Solenoglyphous (pipe grooved) snakes make up the viperidae and show some of the most specialized teeth for the job.Viperid fangs have the groove so deep now that the outside of the teeth completely cover it forming a pipe for venom to enter. The two fangs are attached to a short highly movable maxillary bone. This bone allows the snakes to fold their fangs up in their mouths. This ability to fold up the fangs allows for greater fang length. How much greater? Well compare a 3. 83-m Ophiophagous hannah's 11mm fangs to a 1. 8-m Bitis gabonica (Gaboon viper) with fangs measuring 29mm. Impressive no? Viperids have predominantly hemotoxic venom and as such, their bites take longer to take effect.Since the effect is longer, the snake can't risk holding onto the struggling prey for it woul d surely get hurt, but with their potent venom, quick strikes and hyperextendable fangs, these snakes are able to get in and out extremely fast. Not only can the fangs hyperextend (up to 1800) but with the separately jointed maxillae the fangs can move individually as well. So a viper can decide whether or not to move one fang or two. Inject one side or two. The amount of venom control in vipers is astounding as well as their venom reservoirs. The bulk of Bitis gabonica's head is it's venom glands. Shocking!Offense or Defense As stated before, snakes predominantly use their venom to capture prey, but when push comes to shove, venom can mean the difference between life and death. Snake defense is rather limited when one thinks about it. They can't outrun their predators, a lack of limbs means that gaining the leverage for tail whipping is rather impossible (pointless anyway seeing as how most snakes have rather small tails). Some snakes can secrete nasty substances that make them unw anted to be around. Others feign their own deaths, but in general the best area of defense for snakes lies in their jaws.For a venomous snake, biting a predator means wasting precious venom; a commodity that doesn't come without it's price. Venom costs energy to make and takes a while to refill when empty. A snake would much rather save that venom for something worth it like food, so it takes quite a bit of pressing to get a venomous snake to actually bite. In fact it is for these reasons that venomous snakes have adopted so many warning strategies. From warning colors, to hoods, to rattles, venomous snakes do everything in their power to avoid biting the enemy. In contrast a boid or other constrictor will readily bite in defense.While they lack venom, recurved teeth can be just as bad and since constrictors don't have to worry about wasting venom they can feel free to bite all they want. Lethal injection or False alarm? Along with warning well in advance, another common thing found in venomous snakes (especially viperids) is giving what is known as a â€Å"dry bite. † Dry bites occur when a snake like a rattler is cornered and forced to bite in defense. While the snake might be in last resort mode, it still has one more trick up it's sleeve. Venomous snakes (true venomous snakes) have the ability to choose whether or not they want to inject venom into something.So if a rattlesnake bites a dog, it has the choice of either envenomating or bluffing the animal. In nature bluffs work much of the time and are the safest way for an animal to avoid a fight. By giving off a dry bite, venomous snakes need not waste their venom supplies. In fact over half of all rattlesnake bites are dry ones. A very comforting thought. Mysteries of Venomous Snakes One of the strangest things about elapids and viperids is that they seem to have evolved venom that is too potent for their own good. For instance, a Western rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis) injects it's prey (a mouse) w ith 300 times more venom than is necessary.Or the Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus) which injects enough venom in one bite to kill two hundred thousand mice. Why the excess? No one knows for sure. Perhaps the mechanisms that produced the venom never had any buffers for how powerful it got. Since the evolution of new traits involves the constantly ascending path (new traits are only kept if beneficial to the organism) the fact that ever potent venom would always guarantee the quick death of the prey means that it would always be selected for and will be until something comes to counter it.While this is a nice theory and all, there is an underlying problem with it. Venomous snakes (of at least the elapid and viperid families) are able to meter out how much venom they intend to inject into their prey. So that Crotalus viridis is quite aware of the amount it is pumping into that mouse. Plus since venom replenishment is not the fastest thing (averaging between 4 days and three wee ks) injecting so much venom seems wasteful. Another theory proposed was that it the venom helps to begin the digestion process. Surely this seems reasonable especially considered how venom effects tissue along with it's origins.Yet that too does not give a perfect explanation for Brown tree snakes (Boiga irregularis) which inject three to eight times more venom than necessary, end up with half of that venom lodged in the skin. So for now, the reasons behind the excess venom delivery by venomous snakes are still unknown. Warnings about venom While no person should actively go out and try to capture a venomous snake (without good reason) in the even that one finds said snake, the best precautions are to examine the encounter. If you're far enough away to leave then feel free to do so, you need not worry about the snake following you.If you're practically stepping on the snake things could be worse. At that point though one usually finds that one has been bitten. If bitten make sure to ID the snake. Remember as much as possible about it. For an idea of the type of venom that might have been injected in you consider the area that you are at and how the snake looked. Vipers, due to their large venom glands, have heart shaped heads. Elapids have nice thin heads. Colubrids are harder to tell apart from elapids, but a venomous elapid will give warning or have some type of forewarning available.Colubrid bites normally don't kill and are more a pain than anything else. Viper bites can be deadly and normally are very painful. Elapid bites are extremely lethal and antivenin treatment is a must if bitten. Although all this seems scary, it's best to remember that no venomous snake will attack without severe provocation. Look for the warning signs and watch where you step and you should be fine. Also remember many bites given are dry, so just because you were bitten doesn't mean you were envenomated. A good rule of thumb when dealing with a scared or cornered snake is that t he last thing it's going to want to do is bite.